# Recitation 4

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import numpy as np
import scipy.sparse as sp
from IPython.display import HTML, display
import tabulate


Numpy has some magic that allows you to perform operations with arrays of different shapes. When working with more advanced operations, understanding broadcasting is important to making sure you don’t accidentally break something. We’re going to explore those rules in a simpler manner than the official tutorial.

Here some pseudocode expresses these rules:

function broadcast(a, b):
if a.ndim != b.ndim:
add one-element dimensions to a or b until they have the same number of dimensions

for i in range(a.ndim):
if a.shape[i] == b.shape[i]:
both dimensions are the same length, no broadcasting necessary
elif a.shape[i] == 1:
copy dimension [i, i+1, ...] of a until it is the same as b
elif b.shape[i] == 1:
copy dimension [i, i+1, ...] of b until it is the same as a
else:
raise "ValueError: operands could not be broadcast together"


(Its not actually implemented like this. See the official docs for details.)

Note that the dimensions are not actually copied; Numpy does something that is far more efficient than that.

From these simple rules, we get some pretty interesting behaviour:

def pp(a):
if a.ndim < 2:
a = [a]
display(HTML(tabulate.tabulate(a, tablefmt='html')))

def rnd(*a):
return np.random.permutation(np.prod(a)).reshape(a)

# Constant * Array:
b = rnd(5, 3)
pp(b)

 3 10 11 7 2 0 1 8 9 13 4 12 14 5 6
pp(2 + b)

 5 12 13 9 4 2 3 10 11 15 6 14 16 7 8

Let’s use the pseudocode to examine why this works. We begin with:

a = []     array of [2]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


Numpy treats the constant like a zero-dimensional array. In the first step, it observes that there are fewer dimensions in a than b, so pads a with size-1 dimensions:

a = [1, 1] array of [2]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


Now working from left-to-right, it examines the first dimension and notices that they are of different sizes, so broadcasting is necesssary. Because the first dimension of a is 1, it can be broadcast to match the first dimension of b. After this step, the array now looks like:

a = [5, 1] array of [2, 2, 2, 2, 2]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


Now it examines the second dimension. Following the same pattern as before, it broadcasts the second dimension of a to match b:

a = [5, 3] array of [2, 2,...]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


Now that the arrays are the same size, they can be added element-by-element.

Lets try this again, this time with a 1-d array to a 2-d array:

c = rnd(3)
pp(c)

 2 0 1
pp(b + c)

 5 10 12 9 2 1 3 8 10 15 4 13 16 5 7

c = [3]    array of [0..2]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


c = [1, 3] array of [0..2]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


We broadcast the first dimension of c to match b:

c = [5, 3] array of [0..2]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


And now it can be added!

d = rnd(5)
pp(d)

 3 0 1 2 4
pp(b + d)


d = [5]    array of [0..4]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


c = [1, 5] array of [0..4]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


We broadcast the first dimension of d to match b:

c = [5, 5] array of [0..4]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


And the second dimension does not agree, so they can’t be broadcast.

To get it to broadcast correctly, we need to add the padding dimension in the right place ourselves. Here’s an example:

e = d[:,None]
pp(e)
print(e.shape)

 3 0 1 2 4

e = [5, 1] array of [0..4]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


No padding dimensions need to be added here, and the first dimensions already agree. We broadcast the second dimension of e to match b:

e = [5, 3] array of [0..4]
b = [5, 3] array of [0..14]


And now they can be added.

pp(b + e)

 6 13 14 7 2 0 2 9 10 15 6 14 18 9 10

Broadcasting can give you some pretty awesome results. Here’s an example of generating a two-dimensional array using two one-dimensional arrays. Try using our analysis to understand why this works the way it does; the official documentation explains this example.

p = np.array([0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5])
q = np.array([0, 10, 20])

pp(p[:,None] + q)

 0 10 20 1 11 21 2 12 22 3 13 23 4 14 24 5 15 25

## Multiplications in Numpy

This is a common source of difficult. We’re going to go over each type of multiplication (both dense and sparse) and explain how its done.

Lets begin with the most important caveat: np.array, np.matrix, and sp.sparse.* handle multiplication slighly differently!

And here are some tips:

1. When working with sparse matrices, you should use Scipy operations (not Numpy ones)
2. When working with dense matrices, you can use either operation.
3. When working with np.array objects:
• a * b is equivalent to np.multiply(a, b)
• a @ b is equivalent to np.matmul(a, b).
4. When working with np.matrix objects:
• a * b is equivalent to np.matmul(a, b), and
• a @ b is equivalent to np.matmul(a, b).
5. The matmul operation has special broadcasting rules.
6. The syntax (5,) means a tuple of length 1 with the value 5.
7. For np.multiply, the order of arguments does not matter.

When working with these, it is important to always know what type of array or matrix you are dealing with and what the size is.

Lets begin with the simplest operation:

a = np.array(5)
b = np.array(3)

np.multiply(a, b) == a.dot(b) == 15


Scalars can be multiplied regularly; using matrix multiplication operations on them throws an error.

### 1-D array:

Now we’ll scale this up to 1-d arrays.

c = rnd(5)
d = rnd(5)
pp(c)
pp(d)

 0 1 2 4 3

The * operation (equivalent to np.multiply) calculates the element-wise product of the two arrays. (This is sometimes called the Hadamard product.)

pp(c*d)

 0 4 2 8 0

The dot product calculates the sum of the element-wise product:

c.dot(d)


As does the matrix product:

c @ d


#### Transpose

The transpose of a 1-d array does not change the array.

print(c.shape)
print(c.T.shape)

(5,)
(5,)



If you want to convert it to a row-array, you can do it like this:

# Add an extra dimension and then transpose:
print(c[:,None].T.shape)

# Or just make a new dimension in the right place:
print(c[None,:].shape)

(1, 5)
(1, 5)



### Row- and column-array

Working with the transpose of c, we see that dot, multiply/*, and matmul/@ give the same values, but with an extra dimension:

e = c[:,None] # e is c with an extra dimension.

e.T.dot(d)

e.T * d

np.matmul(e.T, d)


You can also get the cross product of two vectors using matrix multiplication:

pp(c[:, None].T @ d[:, None])

 14
pp(c[:, None] @ d[:, None].T)

 0 3 6 12 9 0 4 8 16 12 0 1 2 4 3 0 2 4 8 6 0 0 0 0 0
print(c[:,None].shape)
c.T.T @ d


#### Caveat: np.matrix

The * operation is equivalent to np.matmul.

np.matrix(c).T * d


### 1-d and 2-d array

We begin with a (3, 5) array:

f = rnd(3, 5)
pp(f)

 5 2 10 7 9 0 4 8 14 13 12 1 6 11 3

Recall the shape of c is (5)

pp(c)

 3 4 1 2 0

#### Matrix-vector product

You can also perform matrix multiplication or the dot operation between the (3, 5) f and (5,) c to get a result of shape (3,):

pp(f @ c)

 47 52 68
pp(f.dot(c))

 47 52 68

#### Elementwise product by rows

The broadcast rules will automatically broadcast c from (5) to (3, 5) by copying the rows; this results in each row of f being multiplied element-wise by c.

pp(f * c)

 15 8 10 14 0 0 16 8 28 0 36 4 6 22 0

#### Elementwise product by columns

If you want to multiply the elements each column of f by a corresponding element in an array g, the easiest way is to explicitly create a dimension of size 1 so the broadcasting engine knows to copy along that dimension.

g = np.array([1, 2, 3])
pp(g)

 1 2 3
pp(f * g[:, None])

 5 2 10 7 9 0 8 16 28 26 36 3 18 33 9

This works because we’re multiplying f (3, 5) by g[:, None] (3, 1), shapes that can be broadcast together by the rules we’ve discussed. (This also works when the LHS is sparse and the RHS is either sparse or dense.)

Another trick to do this is to create a diagonal matrix and left-multiply with that. You have to use matrix multiplication for that operation.

pp(np.diag(g))

 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 3
pp(np.diag(g) @ f)

 5 2 10 7 9 0 8 16 28 26 36 3 18 33 9

This can be made reasonably efficient using a sparse diagonal matrix, which only includes the entries along the diagonal:

pp(sp.diags(g) @ f)

 5 2 10 7 9 0 8 16 28 26 36 3 18 33 9

## Optimizing Numerical Computation

We’re going to go over some common techniques to speed up numerical computation. This will be very useful when optimizing code for speed.

### Actually Use Numpy

Instead of mixing Numpy and Python lists together, use Numpy for as much of the computation as possible. You make orders of magnitude of gain here!

This is because Numpy operations are (1) performed in low-level C code and don’t incur python interpreter overhead and (2) vectorized.

Here’s an example where we add 1,000,000 integers together:

s = np.ones(1000000)

def loopsum(m):
rv = 0
for i in range(len(m)):
rv += m[i]
return rv

def npsum(m):
return np.sum(m)

%%timeit
loopsum(s) == 1000000

202 ms ± 8.83 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1 loop each)


%%timeit
npsum(s) == 1000000

342 µs ± 16.2 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)



We get at least 500x speedup with Numpy.

### Rewrite Code To Consolidate Multiplication

As a general rule of thumb, here are the relative costs of different multiplications:

Left Right Type Cost ($n$ == length) Remarks
vector vector elementwise $\mathcal O (n)$
vector vector dot $\mathcal O (n)$
matrix vector elementwise $\mathcal O (n^2)$ (both row/column broadcasting)
matrix vector matmul $\mathcal O (n^2)$
matrix matrix elementwise $\mathcal O (n^2)$
matrix matrix matmul $\mathcal O (n^3)$

Additionally, constructing a vector takes $\mathcal O(n)$ and a matrix takes $\mathcal O(n^2)$.

You can improve the speed of your computation considerably by rewriting your algorithm to avoid more expensive operations; a good sign that you can do this is when you have multiple inputs that are larger than the size of your output.

#### Example 1

Lets work through an example. We wish to calculate $A * B * \vec v$, which are matrices/vectors of size 1000. We can compute this two ways:

1. $A * (B * \vec v)$
2. $(A * B) * \vec v$

Assign a cost to each operation and figure out the size of each intermediate state to figure out which operation will be quicker.

A = np.random.randint(1000, size=(1000, 1000))
B = np.random.randint(1000, size=(1000, 1000))
v = np.random.randint(1000, size=(1000,))

%%timeit
(A @ B) @ v

1.23 s ± 88.6 ms per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1 loop each)


%%timeit
A @ (B @ v)

1.44 ms ± 3.81 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)



We also check that they give the same answer:

all((A @ B) @ v == A @ (B @ v))


We can see why method 1 is about a thousand times faster than method 2 by breaking down the operations:

1. In method 1, we first evaluate the matrix-vector product $B * \vec v$ which incurs $\mathcal O(n^2)$ time and produces a vector of length $n$. The second operation is also a matrix-vector product which takes $\mathcal O(n^2)$ time: $\underbrace{A * \underbrace{(B * \vec v)}_{\mathcal O(n^2)}}_{\mathcal O(n^2)}$ The overall time is $\mathcal O(n^2)$
2. In method 2, we first evaluate the matrix-matrix product $(A * B)$, which takes $\mathcal O(n^3)$ time. The subsequent matrix-vector takes $\mathcal O(n^2)$ time. $\underbrace{\underbrace{(A * B)}_{\mathcal O(n^3)} * \vec v)}_{\mathcal O(n^2)}$ The overall operation is dominated by the $\mathcal O(n^3)$ time.

This suggests that method 2 should be slower by a factor of $n$, which is 1,000 in our example.

#### Example 2

Let’s try this again, this time a more subtle use-case.

We wish to compute $A * \text{diag}(\vec u) * \vec v$, where $\text{diag}(\vec u)$ is an otherwise zero matrix with the diagonals set to $\vec u$. There are two ways to do this that we have already discussed:

1. $(A * \text{diag}(\vec u)) * \vec v$ which takes $\mathcal O(n^3)$ time
2. $A * (\text{diag}(\vec u) * \vec v)$ which takes $\mathcal O(n^2)$ time

We observe that $\text{diag}(\vec u) * \vec v$ is the same as taking the elementwise product $\vec u \circ \vec v$. We use this to rewrite the operation:

1. $A * (\vec u \circ \vec v)$ which takes $\mathcal O(n^2)$ time

Even though (2) and (3) are the same asymptotically, notice that (2) takes three $\mathcal O(n^2)$ operations but (3) only takes one. Question: why three operations?

At a moderate $n = 1000$, lets see which is quicker:

A = np.random.randint(1000, size=(1000, 1000))
u = np.random.randint(1000, size=(1000,))
v = np.random.randint(1000, size=(1000,))

%%timeit
# Method 2
A @ (np.diag(u) @ v)

1.77 ms ± 13.1 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)


%%timeit
# Method 3
A @ (u * v)

723 µs ± 10.8 µs per loop (mean ± std. dev. of 7 runs, 1000 loops each)



By saving the extra $\mathcal O(n^2)$ operations, we speed our computation up considerably. We check that the output is the same:

all(A @ (np.diag(u) @ v) == A @ (u * v))


Great!